Saraswati in Jainism: A Study
Sanjay Sonawani
Indian theology is
unique. Various religions arose and some traveled in
India since ancient times. Every religion had some main deities. Jainism though
does not believe in the concept of a “Creator God” it too had many subordinate
deities to their Tirthankaras. Due to religious rivalry or in an attempt to
modify the form of the deities suitable to the socio-cultural conditions of the
time, the interfaith exchange was inevitable. Though this is a complex process
one has to inquire into which deity was originally conceived by which religion,
what was its original form and how it took various forms and when the same
deity was accepted by other religious people, what form the same deity took.
The study helps us to see the original form of the deities and how their forms
changed in the course of time.
Saraswati is an
important deity in Jainism. Jainism does not believe in deities with divine
powers in the traditional sense at the level of philosophy. However, Saraswati,
Lakshmi, the Sasan deities, and demigods like Yaksha, Yakshini, and Nagas are
given a place in their sculptures and mythology. To see what the original
nature of these deities meant to the Jains, we have to understand the history
of the goddess Saraswati herself.
Vedic Saraswati
It is widely believed
that the deity Saraswati originated from the Vedas. Saraswati is a deified
river in the Rigveda. It is assumed that the Vedic civilization was born around
1500 BC on the banks of this river. In the Rigveda, this river is
glorified with the words "Devitame, Ambitame". (R. 2.41.16) This
River is described in the Rigveda as full of surging water whose waves break
through the mountains. (R. 6. 61. 2, 8) She originates from the heavenly sea
and never dries up. (R. 5.43.11) She makes the earth fertile. She is also
called 'Subhaga' as she bestows wealth, virility, children, and immortality. In
the Vedic pantheon, Saraswati is similar to the mother Goddess like Aditi,
Ushas, etc. who can be compared to the goddess 'Prithvi' or earth goddess. She
is said to have the power to sanctify the impure and she is so
powerful that her blessings bring prosperity, the childless get sons (R.
7.96.4-6). It is seen from many verses in the Rigveda that she may have been
considered as the goddess of prosperity. In sacrificial offerings, she was
prayed along with the goddess Ida and Bharati.
Vedic society was not a
matriarchal society but a patriarchal one, therefore, the number of female
deities or mother goddesses is very low. If we look at a total of 645 deities
in the Rigveda, five or six such important female deities are personifications
of natural phenomenons. The goddess Saraswati also arose from the respect and
praise for the river Saraswati, which was considered life-giving to the Vedic society.
But it should be noted here that this deity does not appear anywhere in the
Rigveda as the deity of speech, wisdom, knowledge, and music as these qualities
were imposed on her character in far later times.
In Rigveda, there is a
deity called 'Vak' who is considered as the deity of speech. The Vedics gave
birth to this deity in the late period from the idea that there is power in the
chants of the Vedic sages. The deity Vak was regarded as possessing very
mystical power and her association inspired the sages to create verses of
Rigveda (R. 10.125). The Vedics also imagined that due to the existence of Vak
hearing, sight, perception, and linguistic expression become possible. Vak was
also believed to be the queen of the celestial gods. (R. 8.89) That is, many
forms of the deity Vak were also conceived by Vedic seers. Vagdevata, an
independent deity, was born from this 'Vak'. During the Brahmana period
(eighth-ninth century BC) this deity became more important. Her character was
mystified more by creating many myths around her. It was proclaimed that
"Vak" gave birth to the three Vedas and that Prithvi (earth) is the
Rigveda, Vayu (Air) is the Yajurveda, and Akash (sky) is the Samaveda. But at
the same time, it is also said that the deity “Vak” was born from the mind of
Prajapati and the process of creation started from that moment.
In short, the deity Vak
in Rigveda significantly was modified in Brahmana times which lacks consistency
in many places. But Saraswati and Vak were separate deities even in Brahmana
times. Vak and Saraswati were independent deities with different
characteristics. While Vedic Saraswati is a metaphor for the river, Vedic Vak
is a metaphor for Vedic verses. Later, however, we find that Vagdevata was
unified with Saraswati as it became an alternate name for Saraswati.
Originally both of the
deities were not the deities of wisdom and knowledge. It was a far later
development that both the deities were assimilated with adorning few more
characteristics. Whether these new characteristics were invented by the Vedics
themselves or were borrowed from other contemporary religions/cultures has to
be considered. Sharda is also considered to be an alternative name for
Saraswati, but it also is not true. Sharda was an independent deity merged with
Saraswati in a later course.
The Saraswati in Puranas
The Hindu/Vedic Puranas
began to take their final form after the third century AD, during the Gupta
period. Besides, many additions were made in the Puranas in the course of time.
Therefore, we find that mythological information is often confused.
Nevertheless, let us explain the nature of the mythical Saraswati. It was
during this period that Saraswati and Vagdevata in the Vedas were merged and
they became Vagdevi as a synonym for Saraswati. Saraswati was also known as
Vagiswari, Vani, Sharada, Bharati, Vedamata, Shatarupa, and Veenapani.
Saraswati was now in her entirely changed form not only the goddess of speech
or river but also the goddess of knowledge, wisdom, art, and music.
According to Puranas,
Saraswati was born from the mouth of Brahma. There is also a mythological story
that even though she was the daughter of Brahma, Brahma became sensuous to her,
and therefore Brahma became unworshipped. This was the time when Saraswati's
relationship with Prajapati seized and she was associated with Brahma.
According to Puranas,
Saraswati is white in complexion, the first power in the universe, pervading
the world, holding a harp (Veena) and a book, giving safety, and destroying the
darkness of ignorance. In the Skanda Purana, under the influence of Shaivait
tradition, she is described as wearing matted hair with a crescent of moon
adorning her head, a blue throat, and three eyes. In short, she was seen as a
copy of Shiva. Sometimes she is depicted as quadrilateral. The book in her hand
is considered to be a symbol of the Vedas. (Bharatiya Sanskritikosh, Vol. 9,
pp. 672-673, edited by Pt. Mahadevshastri Joshi)
In short, the character
of Vedic Saraswati seems to have changed completely in the Puranas. The book in
her hand is the Vedas, which is at least a post-10th century idea when Vedas
were committed to writing. Since the writings of the Jains are ancient, it was
natural to hand over the manuscripts to the Shruta Deity. There is also a
strong argument that the idea of giving a book in Saraswati’s hand may have
been taken from the Jains.
In later times, when the
concept of incarnation became dominant, Savitri and Gayatri were considered
Sarasvati’s incarnations. In short, we have seen how the Vedic Saraswati developed
over the course of time. Now let us look at the Jain concept of Saraswati.
Jain Saraswati
Srutadevata
(श्रुतदेवता) represents the
embodiment of the entire canonical knowledge of Jainism, according to the Paṇhavagarana
(Sanskrit: Prasnavyakaraṇa), the tenth Anga of the Jain canon which deals with
the prophetic explanation of queries regarding divination. Srutadevata (Pkt.
Sudadevadā/Suyadevayā) is mentioned also in the Bhagavatīsūtra,
Mahanisithasutra, and some other Jain texts. In the Jain tradition, the
twelve aṅgasutras are described as her
limbs, and the fourteen purvas as
her ornaments.
Jain
Scholar Paul Dundas takes the Srutadevata referred to in the Bhagavatisutra not
as Saraswati but rather as an all-purpose category. Yet, another Jain scholar,
Nagasaki Hojun, interprets it as Sarasvati. With the discovery of Jivabhogin’s
commentary on the Paṇhavagaraṇa, it is clear that Srutadevata was identified
with the Mayuravahini Saraswati by the end of the seventh century. However,
connotation of Jain Saraswati alias Sarassai is not identical with Vedic
Mayurvahini Saraswati.
The
earliest goddess worshiped by the Jainas was Shrutdevata alias Sarassai. Shrutadevi goddess is the personification
of Jinvani or sermons of the Tirthankara and not a
personification of the river named Saraswati. Jain Sarassai is a combination of
two words, Saras+ Sai= Sarassai. The word Saras means lake and lotus and Sai
means memory, remembrance, contemplation, and time, according to the Prakrit
dictionary. So when the two words come together, Sarassai seems to mean the
lake or ocean of memories (of the Jin’s words). Thus the Jain Sarassai is the
goddess of speech of the Tirthankaras and its memorizing. Sarassai in the
original Prakrit form was with the artificial sound change was transliterated
to Saraswati. The original meaning was lost which created confusion.
The teachings of the
Tirthankaras have attained the highest place in the Jain scriptures. Their
preachings were divine to them. So the Jains gave it the title of Shrutadevi
elevating her to the divine status. Shrutadevi is also called the goddess of
education and speech because it is through this preaching that the darkness of
ignorance is eliminated, and envy, suffering, and pain are ended. According to
Digambara tradition, when the sermons of Mahavira were written in the form of
"Shatkhandagama" and when the “Dhavala” commentary on it was
completed, that day is celebrated as “Shrut Panchami”. This day is also
celebrated as Prakrit Language Day.
For thousands of years
in the history of Jainism, the preachings of the Tirthankaras have been
remembered and spread by the Ganadharas. That is why memory is also important.
It was intended that the mendicants and the preachers should also meditate on
memory. The idea of this deity was born in the minds of Jain seekers after
considering these important aspects of Shrutadevata. From the known Dnyat
Dharma Sutras, it is evident that there was a tradition of meditating on this
deity to sharpen memory. Moreover, the concept developed that the ancient Jain
scriptures were its organs and ornaments. The ancient religious literature of
the Jains is called "Suyanan" (Srutajnana). This is also explained in
the scriptures like Vyakhya Prajnapti (2nd century AD) and Paumchariya. She is
the most popular and ancient goddess in Jainism. The festival of this goddess
is celebrated as ‘Jnana Panchami’ in Swetambar and ‘Shruta Panchami’ in
Digambar tradition. The place for this deity is compulsory in Jain temples. It
is also worth noting that even in Hindu temples, which are currently under
Vedic influence; there is no tradition to keep an idol or image of Saraswati.
We will notice that the Jinvani of the Tirthankaras and
Kevalis is the foundation of Jainism and therefore it has been given the status
of a deity from ancient times.
Jain mythology is
remarkable in this regard. According to a myth, at one end of Jambudvipa is the
Himwan (Himalaya) mountain and there are seven big lakes on this mountain.
Rapid rivers flow through these lakes and reach the sea, irrigating vast areas.
Lotuses bloom in these lakes and each lotus is the abode of a Sasana
(education) goddess. These Sasana (Education) deities are collectively
recognized as deities of education in the Jain mythologies. Sasan means
education. These Sasan Devis are 24 with independent names and are believed to
symbolize the twenty-four Tirthankaras. In fact, each Tirthankara has its own
Sasana deity. These names have come with some changes in the Digambara and
Shwetambara sects. 16 of the Sasan Devis are considered to be Vidya Devis. The
answer to how the alternate name of Shrutadevi came to be Sarassai is in this
myth. As Saras means lake and Sai means memory, we will notice that the word
Sarassai comes from the sense of the head of the Sasana goddesses that adorn
the lotuses in the celestial lake.
For example, according
to the Shwetambaras, the order of Sasana deities of the Tirthankaras is –
Chakrashwari, Ajita, Duritari, Kali, Mahakali, etc. and according to the
Digambaras that order is- Chakrashwari Rohini, Prajnapati, Vajrasrinkha etc.
That is, even though there are only twenty-four governing deities, some of
their names have changed.
In Jain iconography,
Shrutadevi (i.e. Sarassai) is considered to be the preeminent of Sasana
(learning) or Vidyadevatas. Acharya Hemachandra has also explained in Abhidhanchintamani that
Shrutadevi means Saraswati. Western scholars like Ludwick believe that Vidya
Devi emerged in Jainism after the fifth century AD. (Sarasvatī: Riverine
Goddess of Knowledge: From the Manuscript-carrying "Vīṇā" ...By
Catherine Ludvik) But this goddess of education is not a goddess of knowledge,
but Ludvik states that these deities were created after the fifth century to
increase the belief in the Jain religion and Tirthankaras who have mystic
powers. But there seems no truth in that. However, there is no dispute among
scholars that Srutadevata (Sarassai ) as the presiding deity of the teachings
of Tirthankaras and Kevalis was revered in Jainism in very early times. It was
not any river personified but was considered as a deity of the ocean of
remembered speeches of the Jina’s.
Deities of Jainism are
classified differently. According to Jainism, the abode of deities is divided
into three categories. It is the concept of Jain Puranas that Saraswati and
Lakshmi live in the upper world, the Sasana deities or the goddesses of
learning in the middle world (Tiryagaloka), and the Yaksha-Yakshini live in the
underworld or Patalloka. We have seen through the Jain mythology how the Sruta
deity could have got the name Saraswati (Sarsasai). The Vedic concept of
Vagdevata and the Jain concept of Srutadevata are entirely different and have
nothing in common as thought. Therefore, the prevailing opinion that the
Saraswati deity was accepted by the Jains under the influence of the Vedics
cannot be accepted. On the other hand, Saraswati as Vagdevi (deity of speech)
and deity of wisdom as a Vedic goddess has to be considered to have developed
under the influence of the Jains because the history of Jainism (Samanas) goes
way back to pre-Vedic times.
During the
Sanskritization of the language, Sarassai became transliterated as Saraswati
and we see that the Vedic Saraswati and the Jain Saraswati may have been
mistaken for one due to identical names but with different connotations. The
Saraswati of the Jains is not even remotely related to the river.
We have seen above the
journey through which Vedic Saraswati underwent changes in the mythological
period and it is clear that both developments were independent of each other.
Vedic Saraswati also is
absent from ancient iconography as the Vedics initially were not idol
worshippers. In fact, the earliest sculptures found so far are of Jain
Saraswati. Images of Vedic Saraswati begin to be found only after the 4th
century A.D. Also it is pertinent to note that Vedic Saraswati became
Veenadharni (lute holder) in the Middle Ages, which was not the case earlier.
Jain Saraswati-sculpture
An idol of Saraswati
with Yaksha image is found at Ghantasala in Andhra Pradesh which dates back to
the second century BC. Ghantshala was an ancient port and many Jain as well as
Buddhist archaeological remains have been found here. The statue of Saraswati
found here belongs to the era of Emperor Kharvela and since the Kalinga state
was adjacent to Andhra Pradesh, Jains had a great predominance in Andhra at
that time. Initially, the Yaksha accompanying this Saraswati idol was thought
to be Kalabhairava. Archaeologists therefore speculated that this
idol might be of Vedic or Hindu Saraswati. But in Hindu or Vedic iconography no
other male deity exists along with Saraswati. Moreover, Vedic religion did not
have the concept of idol worship before. Vedic deities are always embodied in
abstract forms, so this idol cannot be of Vedic Saraswati. Hindus have never
accepted Saraswati as the goddess of knowledge as they didn’t belong to the
Vedic religion anytime in history.
On
the contrary, in Jainism, the idea of being a Yaksha with Sasan Devi is far
ancient. What's more, along with the Tirthankaras, the attendant Yakshas are
also depicted. Moreover, the archaeologists also agree that this statue is made
in the Indus-era iconography style. (Jainism: art, architecture, literature
& philosophy by Haripriya Rangarajan, G. Kamalakar, A. K. V. S. Reddy, K.
Venkatachalam, Sharada Pub. House, 01-Jan-2001, p. 20) So it is proved that the
oldest image of Sarassai alias Saraswati found in India belongs to Jains.
Next, we turn to the
Saraswati image found at Mathura. There is no doubt that this is a Jain idol of
Saraswati because the pedestal of this idol is inscribed with a seven-line
inscription of the donor of this idol. This article sheds a lot of light on the
then-Jain system. This idol belongs to AD 132 (Kushana period). The idol
is now housed in the museum in Lucknow and was found during excavations at
Kankali Tila in Mathura. Many images and inscriptions related to Tirthankaras
and Jaina idols have been found here and the awareness of Jain predominance at
that time can be seen from these inscriptions. Cultural lexicographers have
called this period as 'Jain period'. (Bharatiya Sanskriti Kosha, Vol. 9, p.
673)
Although this idol is
broken, two attendants are shown beside it. The goddess is sitting
in a squatting position holding a scripture in hand. A brief translation of the
Prakrit text of this inscription reads- "Success I. On Shukla Dashami of
the fourth winter month, in the 54th year (of the Kushan dynasty), I Sihaputra
Gov (Gop) blacksmith, offers the above idol of Saraswati to this dance hall at
the behest of the Aryadeva, the preacher (reader) of the Kottiyagana, the Sthaniya
kula, the Vaira Sakha, and the Srigriha sambhoga has been set up for the
welfare of all beings."
This article mentions
the Kottiya Gana, the Sthaniyya Kula, and the Vaira (Vajra?) branch. It is
believed that this sheds light on the distinctive religion and social structure
of the Jains of that time. The text of this inscription gives an indication
that there were clans of families and branches of clans formed from the Ganadharas
of Tirthankaras. This reinforces the possibility that there was some internal
connection between “Staniya kula” and later Sthanakvasi branch of Jainism.
Besides this inscription of a blacksmith, inscriptions of many goldsmith donors
who were Jains have also been found in Kankali Tila. This Aryadeva was the
chief preacher of the lay-disciple blacksmiths of that time which can be seen
from the text of some other inscriptions. This shows that Jainism was widely
practiced in the Kushan period even among the common people. " (Early
Inscriptions Of Mathura A Study by Bajpayee, Kalyani Das p. 143-153)
"Angavija" a book in Maharashtrian Prakrit was also written during
this period. That book also sheds light on the social system of those
times.
The inscription informs
us that in the Kushan era, Jain Saraswati had become the deity of dance and
music as well since the idol was dedicated to a dance hall. Though Vedic
Saraswati later became the goddess of music she never was considered the
goddess of dance.
But by the 8th-9th
century, we also see some features and legends of Vedic Saraswati beginning to
influence the Jain concept of Saraswati. This is clearly evident from the
Prakrit inscription on the fragmentary image of Vitraga at Wai (Maharashtra).
In this inscription, Saraswati is referred to as the laughter in the mouth-lake
of the four-faced Brahma. This inscription is engraved by Jain lay disciple
Bhimdeva who built the temple of Vitaraga in AD 1067 during the Rashtrakuta
period. Dr. V. B. Kolte states that this inscription bears the influence of the
Great Poet Pushpadanta. (Some Copper Plates and Inscriptions of
Maharashtra, Dr. V. B. Kolte, Maharashtra State Board of Literature and
Culture. 1987, pp. 12-13) It may surprise us as to why the Jain Saraswati has
been associated with Brahma in this inscription. But, after the decline of the Gupta
Empire, the Vedic religion went on the back foot for some time but in a couple
of centuries Vedic adherents started to gain influence in the courts of feudal
lords and then kings throughout India and vehemently they started propagating
the Vedic religion and myths in new zeal because they received patronage from
local rulers thus was easy for them to penetrate the tenets of other local
religions to prove their supremacy. In fact, this era was of religious rivalry.
It affected the Jains as well as the Hindus. This was the period when the Vedic
myths and philosophy entered Jain and Hindu religious thought. In fact, an
attempt was made to identify Vedic Saraswati with Jain Sarassai. As Jains of
this time were in search of their roots, it seems that Tantras also entered
into Jainism during this period. Medieval Jain literature mentions that
scholars like Bappabhatti Suri, Hemachandra, Mallisena, and Narachandra Suri
acquired prodigious talent by the grace of Saraswati. However, for Jains, the
purpose of a Saraswati hymn indeed was to please the deity Shruta or Sarassai.
Given the above
discussion, it is clear that the prevailing view that the Jain goddess
Srutadevi (Suyadevi) and their own deity Saraswati (Sarassai) developed under
Vedic influence, as explained at various places, is not true. Both deities
arose independently in different times and areas of origin. Jain's concept of
God is completely different. The Vedic Saraswati of the Vedic period and the
Saraswati of the Puranic period are also not identical. In fact, there does not
seem to be any continuity in their concepts of Gods. The Vagdevata also comes
as a separate symbol of Vedic hymns and later it was not even a separate deity
but was merged with Saraswati. We also see other alternate names of Vedic
Saraswati and her attributes being affixed in course of the time.
The question is why this
happened. There appears to be continuity in the Jain concept of deities at
least as far back as the tenth century. The concept of Saraswati or Shruta
deity is seen to exist continuously without any change under her preeminence as
chief of Sasana deities (education/vidya). There is no change in the
twenty-four associated Sasana deities, one for each of the 24 Tirthankaras. The
concept that Goddess Saraswati resides in the upper world while Sasanadevata
resides in Tiryaga i.e. Madhyaloka shows the universal nature of Saraswati or
Srutadevata in the Jain canon.
However, it can be seen
that the Vedic concept of Saraswati underwent rapid changes over time as other
deities were unified with her. The myth of Lord Brahma becoming enamored of his
own daughter Saraswati and pursuing her is nowhere to be found in Jain
literature because they knew the distinction. The Jain Srutadevi or
Saraswati (Sarassai) was the deification of the speeches of the Jinas whereas
Vedic Saraswati was the personification of the River on whose banks Vedas were
composed and the sacrifices were conducted. Speeches of Tirthankaras are the
foundation of the Jain religion. It was not merely general knowledge but
knowledge to make every human being move toward the position of Kevali, Siddha,
and Arhat. (Omniscient)
The idols of Jain
Saraswati must have been made in very ancient times. After the Anga and Purva
Granths were written down, Shruta Devi got a separate status and these texts
came to be considered as her organs and ornaments. Since Jinvani was propagated
by remembrance, the Shruta-devata must have come into existence long ago.
A 2nd-century BC
Jain idol of Saraswati from Andhra Pradesh shows a direct link with Indus
iconography and shows how ancient the tradition of Sarassai could have been.
Conclusion
Though the names are
identical the Jaina Saraswati (Sarassai) and Vedic Saraswati are entirely
different deities. Both have independent origins. Though today we find both
shares few similar attributes they are the result of religious conflict and
assimilation process in good and bad times. However, considering both deities
as one and the same is not correct if the theological history of both religions
is carefully studied.
-Sanjay Sonawani
